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What is the primary goal of contact tracing in public health?

Contact tracing is when the officials track and identify someone who's infected by a contagious disease and tell their close contacts of their potential exposure, referring them to testing, counseling them to monitor their symptoms, and encouraging them to quarantine

In the article "Experiences with COVID-19 case investigation and contact tracing: A qualitative analysis" there's a sentence said "We found that participants were concerned about infecting or exposing others, which motivated them to isolate or quarantine, notify contacts, and get tested. Although most cases and contacts were not contacted by CI/CT professionals, those who were reported a positive experience and received helpful information." If we have a contact tracing in public health, the officials can track and identify someone who's infected by the disease, tell the close contacts and stop the spread as quickly as possible.

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During the COVID-19 pandemic, what was one main reason people were motivated to isolate themselves after testing positive?

COVID-19 is contagious and it spread so easily and quickly, so people who tested positive will islolate them some so they don't infect others.

Someone who has confirmed or suspected COVID-19 or may have exposed to the virus, they need to inform their contacts, and counseling them to monitor their symptoms, and recommending isolation.

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What method was commonly used for focus group discussions in the study on COVID-19 contact tracing?

Virtual and Synchronous Meeting were used in the study on COVID-19 contact tracing, because they do it online and not in person, so they don't get infected. It's really seure and safe.

Focus group guides were developed and pretested prior to data collection. Following the pretests, moderators debriefed to adjust questions and probes, ordering of questions, and length of guides. We adapted the focus group guides for use in the one-on-one interviews. Virtual FGDs and interviews were recorded using secure video teleconferencing and conducted in English and Spanish. A lead moderator facilitated each FGD, and a support moderator took notes. One interviewer facilitated each interview. All moderators and interviewers participated in a 2-h training to employ an effective, equitable, and trauma-informed approach that valued all participants’ viewpoints (Mathematica, 2022). The training focused on being empathetic to experiences and feelings and avoiding re-traumatization associated with COVID-19.

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What factor did NOT influence the success of case investigation and contact tracing according to the article?

I don't think the color of the quarantine facilities will influence the succes of case investigation and contact tracing.

Their independent variables are people from a range of racial, ethnic, political, and socioeconomic groups (Table 1). Participants confirmed their positive SARS-CoV-2 test result or exposure; age; Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin; race; highest level of education; and political ideology.

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Which demographic factor was reported to affect the experiences and behaviors of individuals regarding CI/CT?

Type of employment can affect the expiences and behavior of individuals during the CI/CT. For example, people who works hourly jobs couldn't afford to take time of work for quarantine. So employment type can infuence whether someone has flexibity to isloate or to call a sick leave. This can affect their behavior during CI/CT processes.

“My grandma lives with us. And I work at a restaurant. I deal with a lot of elderly people, and when I got home, I was running a fever. At that point, I just already called off of work just to be safe. But I just didn’t want to infect anybody else.” (Case) Some contacts described negative emotions as a result of notification of exposure. One participant, who was on vacation when their spouse tested positive, said they felt “terror” about what would happen next—they worried their spouse would be stuck in the location they were visiting. Another used the word “trauma” to describe what it was like to be exposed while not having the ability to take time off work: “That's something else nobody ever talked about, all the other trauma, like from what the kids went through to the psychological stuff we went through to everything else we went through. When people worried about bringing COVID home because I had to go to work.” (Contact)

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What did participants report feeling after learning they were exposed to COVID-19?

Most of the participants were worried because the ydon't want to infect others.

Most contacts were notified of COVID-19 exposure by a family member, friend, or someone at their workplace or child's school. Few contacts were reached by formal contact tracing professionals, and even fewer learned of their exposure solely from a contact tracer. Many contacts were worried about their personal risk after being notified of exposure. Some experienced hospitalization or loss of a loved one, which made them concerned about their own disease severity. This seemed particularly true among those with underlying health conditions or those who were immunocompromised. “I have COPD, I’m on a breathing treatment four times a day and an inhaler two times a day… I was concerned about winding up on a ventilator.” (Contact) Like cases, contacts were also concerned about potentially exposing family members, friends, and coworkers. Contacts were especially concerned if they lived in multigenerational households with elderly family members at increased risk for severe outcomes from COVID-19 or young children who were not eligible for vaccination. “Everyone started to get worried because my mother had just gotten out of the hospital. She was in the hospital for gallbladder surgery right at Thanksgiving, so she was the last person that needs to get COVID at this point. We all said, ‘OK, we’re going to monitor ourselves. We’re just going to stay home and see what happens and if we start getting symptoms.’” (Contact)

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What was a common source of information for participants when they learned about their COVID-19 status?

They often get a call from someone who got infected or Healthcare provider who they tested with.

Both cases and contacts reported seeking information about COVID-19 from family, friends, health care providers, news channels, and websites. “My dad actually helped with a lot of the research. I think we mostly just tried to look for the CDC sites, things that would be very reliable information.” (Case)

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Which of the following was NOT a method for collecting data in the study described?

Direct observation in home is a risky method, since the disease are so contagious and infect so easily, the officials who went to observe their home might also get infected.

2.2. Virtual focus groups and interviews Focus group guides were developed and pretested prior to data collection. Following the pretests, moderators debriefed to adjust questions and probes, ordering of questions, and length of guides. We adapted the focus group guides for use in the one-on-one interviews. Virtual FGDs and interviews were recorded using secure video teleconferencing and conducted in English and Spanish. A lead moderator facilitated each FGD, and a support moderator took notes. One interviewer facilitated each interview. All moderators and interviewers participated in a 2-h training to employ an effective, equitable, and trauma-informed approach that valued all participants’ viewpoints (Mathematica, 2022). The training focused on being empathetic to experiences and feelings and avoiding re-traumatization associated with COVID-19. All participants received documentation that described the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and what to expect during each FGD or interview. This documentation was reviewed at the start of each group, and consent was obtained from each participant. Each participant received the equivalent of $75 for participating. Thirty-three 60-min virtual, synchronous FGDs were conducted with 178 participants from March 17, 2022, to April 29, 2022. In-depth interviews were conducted with 6 participants during May 5–9, 2022. All FGDs and interviews were recorded, transcribed, and translated (if conducted in Spanish) for coding and analysis.

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What ethical considerations were emphasized during the focus group discussions?

Make sure we keep the participant's privacy and all of them were voluntary and they didn't force them.

Participation was voluntary, and all participants were provided privacy and confidentiality protections. This study was reviewed by CDC and deemed not to be research as defined in 45 CFR 46.102(l) (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Title 45 Code of Federal Regulations 46, Protection of Human Subjects).

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How did the availability of self-tests in 2021 impact the public health response to COVID-19?

It became easier for people to find out if they had COVID-19 or not, so they could staryt isolate early and don't infect other people.

Other participants noted that they would get tested now because home tests became available for free through an online ordering system for all Americans in January 2022. “I feel great that we have those tests that the government provided that you could get through the USPS. So I feel like now anybody who wants to get tested, like you just can… it’s so different.” (Contact)

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What is urban ecology primarily concerned with?

Urban ecology studies how human, buildings, and nature work together in the city

Urbanization is an extreme human activity and is expanding worldwide, consequently increasing the attention of scientists across research areas of urban ecology. Recent studies have warned of the lack of information from certain regions, particularly Africa, which is rapidly urbanizing.

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Which continent is noted as rapidly urbanizing within the study?

There's a lot of studies shows that Africa is rapidly urbanizing.

Africa, which is rapidly urbanizing. Thus, we did a detailed literature search to determine the state of knowledge in African urban ecology in the last century. We found 795 relevant papers from where data were collected and tested to understand geographic and ecological mismatches in research effort, allowing us to identify important knowledge gaps (e.g., taxonomy and scientific fields).

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What significant bias is present in the study of urban ecology in Africa?

Rapidly expanding urbanization of Africa can led to reduction of biodiversity.

Rapidly expanding urbanization is a major threat to nature worldwide, leading to the reduction of biodiversity and alteration of species interactions and ecosystem services (Gaston, 2010, McDonald et al., 2008, McKinney, 2006, United Nations, 2016). The impacts of urbanization could be even worse in the near future due to the geometric progression of human population.

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What factor did the study NOT find influencing research efforts in African urban ecology?

Teachnology Advancement didn't mention in the article.

In the present study, we conducted a systematic literature review to determine trends in urban ecological research conducted in Africa. Relative to other regions such as Asia, Europe and North America (Forman, 2016, Lin and Grimm, 2015, Magle et al., 2012, Wu et al., 2014), there have been few attempts aimed at synthesizing the state of knowledge in African urban ecology (e.g., Cilliers et al., 2013, Shackleton et al., 2017, Lindley et al., 2018, du Toit et al., 2018). Our aims were to (i) analyze the current status of research effort on urban ecology in this continent, (ii) identify research gaps (geographic, taxonomic and ecological) and (iii) provide recommendations and insights on future prospects. Additionally, (iv) we investigated the potential association of urban ecology research effort with some factors previously associated with the number of scientific publications. On the one hand, we tested whether the number of publications in the field (i.e., urban ecology) per country could be influenced by human population density, economic wealth, as well as the current or future urbanization prospects. Given the positive association between human population density and the degree of urbanization (e.g., Gao and O’Neill, 2021, Qizhi et al., 2016), we would expect that countries with high human population density would hold the majority of studies in urban ecology. Furthermore, if urban ecology research effort is driven by the intensity of urbanization, based on the scientific reasoning of geographic focus areas of particular interest, we could predict a positive association of the number of publications on this topic in those countries currently more urbanized or with the highest rate of urban expansion (i.e., future urbanization). Although the relationship between urbanization and economic growth is often contested (e.g., Chen et al., 2014, Moomaw and Shatter, 1996), we would expect that wealthier countries (i.e., higher Gross Domestic Product –GDP–) are those concentrating the majority of urban ecological studies as increased funding positively influences publication rates (Man et al., 2004). On the other hand, we also tested whether the number of publications in the field could be influenced by the conservation status and size of African ecoregions. Previous reviews have pointed out the positive association between the conservation status of study sites and research effort (e.g., de Lima et al., 2011). Thus, if research effort is based on conservation-oriented reasons, we would expect that threatened ecoregions will be more studied. In addition, since smaller areas generally support lower species richness (see Rantalainen et al., 2005), we would expect that larger ecoregions will provide more study opportunities for researchers specializing in different species and scientific topics, and will therefore be more studied. Considering the marked differences between Global North and Global South urban settings (Shackleton et al., 2021), we acknowledge that there could be other factors (e.g., climate severity, colonial history or high diversity in human-nature interactions) shaping the urban ecology research effort in Africa, which is considered part of the Global South. However, we did not include them because of the difficulty of extracting such information and to avoid over-parameterization of models. Findings of this study will provide additional information about African urban landscapes that should generate interest among researchers, conservation practitioners and policy-makers.

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Which method was used to gather data for the study?

They performed a literature search in Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus on 8 March 2021 using different combinations of 89 relevant keywords within the article titles, abstracts and keywords, covering the period 1920–2020.

2.1. Bibliographic search and paper screening We performed a literature search in Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus on 8 March 2021 using different combinations of 89 relevant keywords within the article titles, abstracts and keywords, covering the period 1920–2020. The search string containing research focus (23 keywords; e.g., ecology, biodiversity and wellbeing) and urban terms (5 keywords; e.g., urban, city and town) were matched with region (Africa and country name). We performed independent searches for each of the 58 countries and autonomous territories in the continent. A detailed description of these search terms, and the relevant Web of Science categories (41) and Scopus study fields (10) selected can be found in Table S1. The relevance of the use of such comprehensive keywords has been demonstrated by previous studies (e.g., Raji and Downs, 2021, Roy et al., 2012, Tan and bin Abdul Hamid, A.R. , 2014). We then uploaded all detected papers on Rayyan (https://www.rayyan.ai/) for screening. Rayyan is a web-based App that uses a semi-automation process to screen paper’s preliminary pages with a high degree of precision (Olofsson et al., 2017, Ouzzani et al., 2016). Its adaptability and many functions allow the detection of duplicates, verification, collaboration and decisions in systematic reviews (Abreha, 2019, de Keijzer et al., 2016). In the present study, both authors independently performed the paper selection process by activating the “blind function” in Rayyan and reached a consensus thereafter. Our selection process followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA Statement) (Abreha, 2019, Moher et al., 2009), which is presented in Fig. 1. Based on article titles and abstracts, we first excluded duplicates, non-African studies and investigations carried out outside urban settings. We also excluded papers on human diseases, climate change, pollution and agriculture when they were exclusively focused on clear different disciplines, such as malaria studies exclusively focused on the medical science (e.g., Kigozi et al., 2020) or agricultural papers investigating different crop varieties without any socio-ecological, biodiversity or human dimensions focus (e.g., Kent et al., 2001). Several systematic reviews already exist on these disciplines (e.g., Fayiga et al., 2018, Hulme et al., 2001, Orsini et al., 2013). The remaining articles were then screened and those that met the following criteria were retained for data extraction: (1) urban landscape, ecological and sociological studies, (2) journal articles published in English, (3) peer-reviewed as a first step towards quality control (Beninde et al., 2015, Raji and Downs, 2021), and (4) biodiversity conservation studies (including pet animals and introduced species).

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What does the study suggest is needed for urban ecology research in Africa?

It's because research only happens in rich countries in Africa, so that researchers need to change what they study and where they study it.

Based on our review, we propose the following recommendations to promote urban ecology research in this continent: (1) strengthening collaboration and networking among researchers across regions and countries, as previously suggested in a more general context (McPhearson et al., 2016). This will allow for larger scale studies that will provide an additional and complementary perspective to city/local studies that tackle more specific problems. (2) Helping the education of local experts on urban ecological studies can be also instrumental to overcome some of the previously described publication biases on the topic (Shackleton et al., 2021). (3) Engaging with the citizenship through citizen science projects. This will allow the acquisition of additional scientific information at the same time as it promotes a better urban governance through participation of urban inhabitants. (4) Use of low-cost techniques like GIS or available databases (e.g., museums) to maximize the scientific outcome considering the economic restrictions of the region. We hope that this review will help to re-orientate our research effort on the topic and fill in some important knowledge gaps highlighted here to grant a balanced strategy between urban development and nature conservation in this unique continent.

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Which country was mentioned as having the majority of the studies?

In the article most of the research happens in South Africa.

Fig. 2. Urban ecology research effort (number of urban ecological studies) across years.

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How did the study categorize the geographic biases in research?

Not all country in Africa was research.

Fig. 2. Urban ecology research effort (number of urban ecological studies) across years.

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What is a key recommendation from the study for improving urban ecology research in Africa?

If they keep researching on a rich and big cities in Africa the result won't be ideal

We argue that for African urban ecology to provide more useful information for decision-making and promote sustainable development, future research should try to overcome the detected geographic, taxonomic and ecological biases. To help in this endeavor, we provide a list of the articles reviewed here as well as the journals of publication, where key stakeholders or researchers could obtain relevant data on the topic (Table S2). Based on our review, we propose the following recommendations to promote urban ecology research in this continent: (1) strengthening collaboration and networking among researchers across regions and countries, as previously suggested in a more general context (McPhearson et al., 2016). This will allow for larger scale studies that will provide an additional and complementary perspective to city/local studies that tackle more specific problems. (2) Helping the education of local experts on urban ecological studies can be also instrumental to overcome some of the previously described publication biases on the topic (Shackleton et al., 2021). (3) Engaging with the citizenship through citizen science projects. This will allow the acquisition of additional scientific information at the same time as it promotes a better urban governance through participation of urban inhabitants. (4) Use of low-cost techniques like GIS or available databases (e.g., museums) to maximize the scientific outcome considering the economic restrictions of the region. We hope that this review will help to re-orientate our research effort on the topic and fill in some important knowledge gaps highlighted here to grant a balanced strategy between urban development and nature conservation in this unique continent.

โจทย์ ปรนัย
According to the study, what impacts the number of publications in African urban ecology?

The richer the country, the more researcher will go research.

We argue that for African urban ecology to provide more useful information for decision-making and promote sustainable development, future research should try to overcome the detected geographic, taxonomic and ecological biases. To help in this endeavor, we provide a list of the articles reviewed here as well as the journals of publication, where key stakeholders or researchers could obtain relevant data on the topic (Table S2). Based on our review, we propose the following recommendations to promote urban ecology research in this continent: (1) strengthening collaboration and networking among researchers across regions and countries, as previously suggested in a more general context (McPhearson et al., 2016). This will allow for larger scale studies that will provide an additional and complementary perspective to city/local studies that tackle more specific problems. (2) Helping the education of local experts on urban ecological studies can be also instrumental to overcome some of the previously described publication biases on the topic (Shackleton et al., 2021). (3) Engaging with the citizenship through citizen science projects. This will allow the acquisition of additional scientific information at the same time as it promotes a better urban governance through participation of urban inhabitants. (4) Use of low-cost techniques like GIS or available databases (e.g., museums) to maximize the scientific outcome considering the economic restrictions of the region. We hope that this review will help to re-orientate our research effort on the topic and fill in some important knowledge gaps highlighted here to grant a balanced strategy between urban development and nature conservation in this unique continent.